As negotiations continue during a shaky ceasefire, the question of whether a peace deal between the United States and Iran can hold remains uncertain. A scholar of ancient Persia, which eventually became Iran, notes that the difficulties faced by US President Donald Trump are not surprising given historical precedents. The ancient empires of Rome and Persia fought dozens of wars, and their peace deals often failed to resolve underlying issues, sometimes exacerbating tensions.
Historical Context of Rome-Persia Conflicts
The powerful empires of ancient Persia, ruled by the Parthians from 247 BCE to 224 CE and then the Sasanians from 224 to 651 CE, rivaled the Roman Empire for centuries. Their frequent wars often resulted in peace deals that were primarily aimed at buying time rather than achieving lasting stability. The first major conflict between Rome and Persia was the disastrous invasion led by Roman general Crassus in 53 BCE, which ended with Crassus's death and thousands of Roman soldiers killed near Carrhae in southern Turkey.
Treaty of Rhandeia and Its Aftermath
Ongoing conflict emboldened the Parthians, forcing Rome to recognize the Euphrates River as a boundary in a 20 BCE peace agreement—a significant concession for Rome, whose territorial expansion had previously seemed unstoppable. Conflict erupted again in the mid-first century CE over the strategically located kingdom of Armenia. The Treaty of Rhandeia in 63 CE, struck between Roman Emperor Nero and Parthian King Vologases I, stipulated that the king of Armenia be nominated by the Parthians but crowned by the Roman emperor. While it settled the immediate dispute, the treaty became unwieldy over time. When the Parthians later disregarded it, Roman Emperor Trajan launched a major invasion in 114 CE, capturing the Parthian capital but ultimately failing, with all gains lost by his death in 117 CE.
Sasanian Era and Escalating Conflict
After the Sasanians replaced the Parthians in 224 CE, conflict with Rome escalated further, with control of Armenia often central to peace agreements. Following Roman Emperor Gordian III's death during an invasion of the Sasanian Empire in 244 CE, a new agreement imposed financial penalties on Rome and banned Roman involvement in Armenia. However, Rome ignored the treaty within a few years, leading to devastating Sasanian invasions and the capture of Emperor Valerian in 260 CE. Rome retaliated with a significant victory over Sasanian King Narseh in the late 290s, resulting in the Treaty of Nisibis in 299 CE, which extended Roman power eastward and gave Rome control of Armenia. This treaty, however, sowed considerable enmity. When Sasanian King Shapur II invaded Roman territory in the 350s, his primary aim was to repudiate the treaty made 60 years earlier. This was reinforced after Roman Emperor Julian's failed invasion and death in 363 CE.
Eternal Peace and Its Failure
Conflict levels between Rome and ancient Iran decreased in the fifth century CE but intensified again in the sixth and seventh centuries, with almost constant warfare. Numerous treaties and peace attempts were made, but none lasted. Perhaps the most futile was the so-called Eternal Peace of 532, which lasted less than eight years.
Lessons for Modern US-Iran Negotiations
As history demonstrates, peace deals may be celebrated at the time of signing but can ultimately sow the seeds of discord and future conflict. The dispute over Armenia was eventually settled in the 380s by partitioning the kingdom between Rome and Iran, but it took over 400 years and dozens of attempts. The ongoing ebb and flow of conflict, invasions, threats, and stalemates punctuated the entire period. Whether a lasting peace arrangement between the US and Iran faces similar prospects remains to be seen. Hopefully, this time it will not take centuries to achieve.
